A summary of published research, not medical advice. See the Disclaimer.
All 371 studies in the study browser
Included: human randomized controlled trials, systematic reviews and meta-analyses on time-restricted eating indexed in PubMed. A PubMed search on October 15, 2026 returned 553 records. 371 remain after excluding protocols, retractions, comments, papers that did not study time-restricted eating as the intervention or exposure and trials that measured no effect covered in the article. Below are all 141 reviews and the 25 highest-scored individual studies. The study browser has the rest.
Scores run from 1 to 5 and rate study design only. The rules and reason codes are on Study Scores. Each finding restates the abstract's own conclusion.
Back to Time-restricted eating
| Score | Study | Design, n | Finding |
|---|---|---|---|
| 5 (MA +large) | Garegnani, 2026 | Meta-analysis, 22 studies, n=1,995 | This Cochrane review had no dedicated funding. Protocol (2023): doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD015610. |
| 5 (MA +large) | Molani-Gol, 2026 | Meta-analysis, 15 studies, n=6,386 | However, the effects of TRE on lipid profiles, diastolic blood pressure, and body fat percentage of participants were not significant. The findings suggested that adherence to TRE could modulate glycemic indices, systolic blood... |
| 5 (MA +large) | Wong, 2026 | Meta-analysis, 23 studies, n=1,280 | Study participants who followed the 16/8 TRE showed an overall improvement in fasting glucose, HOMA-IR, insulin, and HDL-C levels compared to participants who followed the control diet. However, the effects of the 16/8 TRE in... |
| 5 (MA +large) | Park, 2026 | Meta-analysis, 28 studies, n=1,648 | TRE may ameliorate metabolic risk factors in adults with overweight and obesity, offering a flexible approach adaptable to individual lifestyles. However, reductions in weight and fat mass may depend on the individual conditions,... |
| 5 (MA +large) | Wu, 2026 | Meta-analysis, 167 studies, n=11 | In adults with overweight, obesity, or metabolic abnormalities, effectiveness in weight loss mainly depends on the extent of the energy restriction, regardless of the mealtime patterns. |
| 5 (MA +large) | Fernandes-Alves, 2026 | Meta-analysis, 30 studies, n=1,341 | TRE yields favorable anthropometric and clinical outcomes, even when intake is isocaloric between the intervention and control groups. This result suggests that circadian effects may enhance the impact of CR on excess weight. |
| 5 (MA +large) | Lima, 2025 | Meta-analysis, 51 studies | Our results suggest that TRF has an effect on self-reported sleep duration and quality that depends on the type and duration of dietary restriction. Further randomized and controlled intervention studies are needed to better... |
| 5 (MA +large) | Yong, 2025 | Meta-analysis, 16 studies | No overall effects of IF on sleep relative to ad libitum eating were observed, despite improvements in weight. This analysis supports IF interventions as an alternative to continuous energy restriction for improving... |
| 5 (MA +large) | Sun, 2025 | Meta-analysis, 20 studies, n=1,242 | CONCLUSIONS: TRE independently promotes weight loss in adults, and combining of TRE with ER has no additional beneficial effects on weight loss. TRIAL REGISTRATION: This study was registered with PROSPERO: CRD42022370215. |
| 5 (MA +large) | Lu, 2025 | Meta-analysis, 2025 studies, n=573 | Overall this systematic review and meta-analysis demonstrated that fasting state contributed to improved glycemic control including FBS, HbA1c, and HOMA-IR levels. In addition, fasting intervention caused to an improvement in... |
| 5 (MA +large) | Khalafi, 2025 | Meta-analysis, 21 studies, n=839 | The 5:2 diet ranked highest for CRP. Conclusions: IF may be an effective dietary therapy for improving some inflammatory markers, with effects potentially influenced by the mode of IF. TRF had the highest rankings across multiple... |
| 5 (MA +large) | Wang, 2025 | Meta-analysis, 15 studies, n=53 | As a non-pharmacological intervention, IF demonstrates significant value for weight management and metabolic improvement. Its advantages in adherence and metabolic regulation position it as a promising therapeutic approach. |
| 5 (MA +large) | Kazeminasab, 2025 | Meta-analysis, 35 studies, n=1,266 | The findings from this meta-analysis involving both athletes and non-athletes suggest that weight loss induced by IF and CR combined with exercise does not necessarily result in reduced physical performance. In real-world... |
| 5 (MA +large) | Semnani-Azad, 2025 | Meta-analysis, 99 studies, n=6,582 | Minor differences were noted between some intermittent fasting diets and continuous energy restriction, with some benefit of weight loss with alternate day fasting in shorter duration trials. The current evidence provides some... |
| 5 (MA +large) | Huang, 2025 | Meta-analysis, n=5,369 | In addition, IF can reduce body weight, reduce waist circumference, maintain stable blood pressure, and reduce low-density lipoprotein and total cholesterol levels, and is considered safe and feasible to implement. However, more... |
| 5 (MA +large) | Quang, 2025 | Meta-analysis, 36 studies, n=914 | The observed decrease in body weight could be partially attributed to factors influencing energy balance, as evidenced by the significantly lower mean calorie intake at the end of the intervention (1694.71 kcal/day, 95% CI:... |
| 5 (MA +large) | Hamsho, 2025 | Meta-analysis, 20 studies | IF may be an effective alternative to CR but is not superior to CR in enhancing human health. Due to the low number of long-term studies, future studies should focus on conducting longitudinal randomized trials comparing IF and... |
| 5 (MA +large) | Khalafi, 2025 | Meta-analysis, 2024 studies, n=2,032 | Subgroup analyses showed that the mode of IF and intervention duration were the primary moderators of IF effects on the markers. In adults with overweight or obesity, IF and CR are comparably effective for reducing body weight... |
| 5 (MA +large) | Qi, 2025 | Meta-analysis, 22 studies, n=1,004 | This meta-analysis found a significant reduction in BMI, weight, and fasting glucose, as well as a rise in HDL-C level with TRE compared with control. TRE could be used as an adjuvant treatment for metabolic dysfunctions. |
| 5 (MA +large) | Chen, 2024 | Meta-analysis, 153 studies, n=9,846 | All IF forms demonstrate potentials to improve metabolic health, with ADF appearing to produce better outcomes across investigated outcomes. Further high-quality trials are warranted to confirm the (relative) efficacy of IF on... |
| 5 (MA +large) | Panagiotou, 2024 | Meta-analysis, 26 studies | Conclusions: TRE is beneficial for weight loss and improvements in cardiometabolic risk factors. Further large-scale clinical trials are needed to confirm these findings. |
| 5 (MA +large) | Xie, 2024 | Meta-analysis, 20 studies, n=1,288 | This work provides moderate to high evidence that TRE is a promising dietary strategy for fat loss. Although it may potentially reduce lean mass and increase LDL, these effects do not pose significant safety concerns. |
| 5 (MA +large) | Zhong, 2024 | Meta-analysis, 15 studies, n=1,365 | This meta-analysis suggested that IF was not associated with a greater risk of AEs in adult patients affected by overweight or obesity. Additional large-scale RCTs stratified by key confounders and designed to evaluate the... |
| 5 (MA +large) | Khalafi, 2024 | Meta-analysis, 2024 studies, n=1,101 | Intermittent fasting is effective for weight loss and specific cardiometabolic health markers in individuals with prediabetes or T2D. Additionally, IF is associated with a reduction in body weight and BMI compared to CR, without... |
| 5 (MA +large) | Dai, 2024 | Meta-analysis, 19 studies, n=568 | Combining TRE with exercise may be more effective in reducing body weight and fat mass and improving lipid profile than control diet with exercise. Implementing this approach may benefit individuals aiming to achieve weight loss... |
| 5 (MA +large) | Fernández-Rodríguez, 2024 | Meta-analysis, 2023 studies, n=313 | Despite its short-term benefits on cardiometabolic health, TRE did not show detrimental effects on bone health outcomes compared to those in the control group. Nevertheless, caution should be taken when interpreting our results... |
| 5 (MA +large) | He, 2024 | Meta-analysis, 1279 studies, n=859 | Early time-restricted eating, especially 16:08 strategy, appears to be an effective strategy to decrease body weight, fat mass, abdominal obesity and inflammation, but less likely to decrease fat-free mass. |
| 5 (MA +large) | Saleh, 2024 | Meta-analysis, 2343 studies | IF regimens can improve some markers of cardiometabolic and liver function in patients with NAFLD. However, the available evidence to support the benefits of IF regimens is limited and derived from a small number of studies, thus... |
| 5 (MA +large) | Khalafi, 2024 | Meta-analysis, 2023 studies | We demonstrate that a combination of Ex and IF produces superior changes in body composition, but not in markers of cardiometabolic health when compared with Ex or IF alone. Ex plus IF could therefore be effective for weight and... |
| 5 (MA +large) | Rovira-Llopis, 2024 | Meta-analysis, 20 studies, n=1,169 | Indeed, a subgroup analysis of the early TRE (eTRE) studies revealed that fasting glucose was significantly reduced by eTRE (Hedges's g = -0.38; 95% CI:-0.62, -0.14; p < 0.01). Our meta-analysis suggests that TRE can reduce HbA1c... |
| 5 (MA +large) | Elsworth, 2023 | Meta-analysis, 17 studies | There was no clear evidence that intermittent fasting affected hunger (WMD = -3.03; 95% CI [-8.13, 2.08]; p = 0.25; N = 13), fullness (WMD = 3.11; 95% CI [-1.46, 7.69]; p = 0.18; N = 10), desire to eat (WMD = -3.89; 95% CI... |
| 5 (MA +large) | Elortegui Pascual, 2023 | Meta-analysis, 2021 studies | The present meta-analysis concludes that IF is comparable to CER and a promising alternative for weight loss. Among the three regimens, ADF showed the highest effectiveness for weight loss, followed by CER and TRE. Further... |
| 5 (MA +large) | Choi, 2022 | Meta-analysis, 66 studies | Furthermore, no recommendations are suggested for VLCD and IF in adults with overweight or obesity, and carbohydrate-restricted diets and IF in patients with hypertension. Here, we describe the results of our analysis and the... |
| 5 (MA +large) | Wang, 2021 | Meta-analysis, 84 studies, n=355 | IF is a safe diet pattern and could be implemented for patients with T2DM or metabolic syndrome. Further studies with a larger sample size are needed to verify the effectiveness and safety of IF in patients with T2DM. |
| 5 (MA +large) | Enríquez Guerrero, 2021 | Meta-analysis, 859 studies | Adherence to the diet was inconclusive. An IF diet may provide a benefit by improving anthropometry, body composition, and lipid profile in overweight or obese adult population, likewise a CER diet. |
| 5 (MA +large) | Meng, 2020 | Meta-analysis, 33 studies | Relative to a non-diet control, IF and ERD are effective for the improvement of circulating TC, LDL-C, and TG concentrations, but have no meaningful effects on HDL-C concentration. These effects are influenced by several factors... |
| 5 (MA +large) | Moon, 2020 | Meta-analysis, 19 studies | TRE is a promising therapeutic strategy for controlling weight and improving metabolic dysfunctions in those who are overweight or obese. Further large-scale clinical trials are needed to confirm these findings and the usefulness of TRE. |
| 4 (SR +large) | La Vignera, 2026 | Systematic review, 38 studies | Among the three dietary patterns examined, the Mediterranean diet appears most protective for iron status in obese individuals. The ketogenic diet may pose the highest risk due to restricted dietary iron diversity and potential... |
| 4 (SR +large) | La Vignera, 2026 | Systematic review, 52 studies | Among dietary interventions for MOSH, VLCKD shows the strongest evidence for testosterone restoration in obese men, through rapid weight loss, improved insulin sensitivity, reduced inflammation, and potential direct HPG axis... |
| 4 (MA) | Viple, 2026 | Meta-analysis, 10 studies, n=599 | Moderate-certainty evidence indicates that TRE reduces fasting blood glucose but not HbA1c. The subgroup analyses revealed that TRE improved HbA1c and fasting glucose in individuals with prediabetes and improved fasting glucose... |
| 4 (MA) | Liu, 2026 | Meta-analysis, 8 studies, n=389 | IF improves hepatic steatosis in MASLD, suggesting a potential to modify disease progression. However, rigorous multicenter randomized trials are required to confirm these findings and develop evidence-based clinical strategies... |
| 4 (MA) | Abu Suilik, 2026 | Meta-analysis, n=1,149 | IF effectively improves hepatic steatosis and key metabolic risk factors in patients with MASLD, but does not affect liver stiffness. The optimal IF strategy may be tailored to patient-specific goals: TRF is superior for reducing... |
| 4 (MA) | Couto-Alfonso, 2026 | Meta-analysis, 7 studies | The cardiovascular mortality risk associated with very restrictive eating windows may emphasize the importance of moderate fasting approaches in this vulnerable population. Further long-term research is needed to confirm optimal... |
| 4 (MA) | Liu, 2026 | Meta-analysis, 7 studies, n=471 | These findings suggest a positive effect of intermittent fasting on disease activity, as indicated by both observational studies and RCTs. However, the reliability of the conclusions drawn from RCTs is limited due to the small... |
| 4 (MA) | Ali, 2026 | Meta-analysis, 8 studies | TRE may induce small reductions in BMI, BF, and FM. Given the limited number, small sample sizes, and short duration of available RCTs, these findings should be interpreted with caution. Larger, well-designed RCTs with... |
| 4 (SR +large) | Liu, 2026 | Systematic review, 25 studies | TRE represents a promising dietary intervention for adults with overweight and obesity. This review provides a structured evidence summary and practical recommendations to guide its clinical application. |
| 4 (MA) | Zhang, 2026 | Meta-analysis | ADF and TRE were shown to have slight effects on some sleep parameters. However, due to limitations, such as small sample sizes and varying protocols of the included studies, the results should be interpreted cautiously. |
| 4 (MA) | Jin, 2026 | Meta-analysis, n=638 | Current evidence suggests that TRE may have a modest effect on sleep; however, further studies are required to verify this hypothesis. |
| 4 (MA) | Giorno, 2025 | Meta-analysis, 6 studies | This difference was small and clinically negligible. Further prospective studies are needed to clarify trimester-specific effects and long-term developmental outcomes. |
| 4 (SR +large) | Maes, 2025 | Systematic review, 725 studies | Current evidence indicates that intermittent fasting is both safe and feasible. However, due to the lack of robust evidence, a definitive conclusion regarding the impact of intermittent fasting on treatment effectiveness and side... |
| 4 (MA) | Anasanti, 2025 | Meta-analysis | IF is effective for improving blood glucose in T2D, particularly with high adherence and in people with obesity. Standardizing IF protocols and improving adherence could enhance future interventions. |
| 4 (MA) | Nam, 2025 | Meta-analysis, 8 studies, n=312 | These findings support the clinical feasibility and effectiveness of TRE as a dietary intervention in diabetes management. However, further high-quality trials with standardized protocols and longer follow-up are needed to... |
| 4 (MA) | Ranneh, 2025 | Meta-analysis, 5 studies | IF represents a promising strategy for improving weight and metabolic, hormonal, and inflammatory profiles in women with PCOS. However, the existing evidence remains preliminary, necessitating further robust studies to... |
| 4 (MA) | Kibret, 2025 | Meta-analysis, 6 studies | Modified alternate-day fasting, and time-restricted eating appear to be promising approaches for reducing most cardiovascular risk factors. These intermittent fasting methods may be considered as potential components of lifestyle... |
| 4 (MA) | Guo, 2025 | Meta-analysis, 7 studies | IF significantly lowered SBP and DBP in individuals with overweight or obesity, particularly in high-risk subgroups (obesity, age ≥45 years, and prehypertension/hypertension), with a favorable safety profile. Due to... |
| 4 (MA) | Dai, 2025 | Meta-analysis, 12 studies, n=616 | The potential benefits of incorporating exercise into IF for adults with overweight/obesity, particularly in terms of body composition, glycemic control, and cardiorespiratory fitness, appear promising. Nevertheless, given the... |
| 4 (MA) | Koh, 2025 | Meta-analysis, 6 studies | Future research should prioritize well-powered TRE RCTs in shift workers that adhere to a 6-10 h eating window. Incorporating early-TRE schedules with sleep hygiene may optimize metabolic outcomes, with circadian biomarkers... |
| 4 (MA) | Zhang, 2025 | Meta-analysis, 9 studies, n=626 | Given its notable advantages for obesity, lipids, and insulin resistance, along with improved patient adherence, IF may be regarded as a more effective dietary approach for individuals with metabolic syndrome. Nonetheless, the... |
| 4 (MA) | Liu, 2025 | Meta-analysis, 12 studies, n=966 | Over the intervention period, long-term IF may safely and feasibly help patients with type 2 diabetes effectively manage blood sugar and reduce body weight, but the metabolic benefits of IF don't endure after its discontinuation.... |
| 4 (MA) | Silva, 2025 | Meta-analysis, 14 studies, n=323 | The findings revealed that TRE resulted in an increase in hunger (MD 2.05, 95% CI 1.46, 2.64; I² = 0%) compared to the isocaloric control group. In conclusion, the TRE protocol was associated with elevated hunger compared to... |
| 4 (MA) | Faris, 2025 | Meta-analysis | Dawn-to-dusk, dry RIF shows promise as a complementary therapy and preventive measure for reducing cardiometabolic and obesity-related risks. However, controlled studies are necessary to validate its effectiveness and fully... |
| 4 (MA) | Liu, 2025 | Meta-analysis, 7 studies, n=625 | This systematic review and meta-analysis suggests that IF has a beneficial effect on reducing body weight, blood glucose, and insulin concentrations in gynecological and breast cancer patients. IF may also reduce fatigue and... |
| 4 (MA) | Hays, 2025 | Meta-analysis, n=338 | TRE with exercise may reduce fat mass compared to an unrestricted eating window exercise-matched control while preserving FFM. However, more studies are needed. |
| 4 (MA) | Aamir, 2025 | Meta-analysis | CR may be more effective in reducing chronic low-grade inflammation than IF. However, there were some concerns regarding the included studies' randomization and allocation sequence concealment process. |
| 4 (MA) | Ranjbar, 2025 | Meta-analysis | IF can improve ALT, AST, and GGT levels but not ALP enzyme levels and may have a benefit on liver function. |
| 4 (MA) | Ho, 2024 | Meta-analysis, 7 studies, n=164 | TRF + RT, in contrast to CON + RT, significantly improved body composition, insulin, and cholesterol levels without affecting muscle mass or strength. |
| 4 (MA) | Cheng, 2024 | Meta-analysis, 9 studies, n=570 | The NMA results indicate that all interventions are effective in reducing weight. Among them, ADF + MICT is the most effective strategy for reducing BW, and it is also the best approach for improving FM. |
| 4 (MA) | Abuelazm, 2024 | Meta-analysis, 8 studies, n=635 | IF regimens showed various positive effects on clinical outcomes in MASLD patients; however, these effects were not consistent. Therefore, a patient-tailored IF regimen should be considered. |
| 4 (MA) | Cheung, 2024 | Meta-analysis, 9 studies, n=899 | However, no statistically significant reductions in waist circumference, total cholesterol, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, fasting glucose, systolic blood pressure, and diastolic blood pressure were found. To sum up, IF... |
| 4 (MA) | Yao, 2024 | Meta-analysis, 9 studies | IF had a reduction in body weight, BMI, fat mass, and TG in adults aged over 40 with obesity without metabolic disease compared to RD, and IF did not cause a significant decrease in lean body mass, which suggests healthy and... |
| 4 (SR +large) | Conde-Pipó, 2024 | Systematic review, 25 studies | But despite this, it is necessary to carry out new studies focusing on the sports field since the samples have been very varied. Additionally, the difference in hours of intermittent fasting should be studied, especially in the... |
| 4 (MA) | Kazeminasab, 2024 | Meta-analysis, 14 studies, n=360 | IF plus exercise improved some cardiometabolic outcomes (body weight, blood pressure, and lipid profile) compared with a control diet plus exercise. |
| 4 (MA) | Ma, 2024 | Meta-analysis, n=1,228 | Sensitivity analyses indicated that the type of individuals had no influence on the pooled results; nevertheless, ADF significantly reduced weight compared to CER and achieved significant waist circumference reduction compared to... |
| 4 (MA) | Liang, 2024 | Meta-analysis | Relative to a non-diet control, TRE is effective for the improvement of CVD risks. Moreover, individual TRE interventions should be developed for different populations to achieve the most effective health improvement for CVD risk factors. |
| 4 (MA) | Schroor, 2024 | Meta-analysis, 8 studies | Slightly greater reductions were, however, observed in fat-free mass and waist circumference. To what extent differences in energy intakes between groups within studies may have influenced these outcomes should be addressed in... |
| 4 (MA) | Črešnovar, 2023 | Meta-analysis, 7 studies, n=231 | Results showed that TRE with CR compared to CR alone resulted in significantly greater reductions in body weight (MD: -2.11 kg, 95% CI: -2.68 kg to -1.54 kg, p = < 0.00001, I2 = 42%), body fat mass (MD: -0.75 kg, 95% CI: -1.35 kg... |
| 4 (MA) | Lange, 2023 | Meta-analysis, n=840 | There is limited, but moderate- to high-quality evidence to suggest that IF can improve hepatic end points and promote weight loss in adults with NAFLD. Larger randomized controlled studies with extended duration are needed to... |
| 4 (MA) | Sun, 2023 | Meta-analysis, 8 studies, n=579 | However, compared with CR alone, TRE plus CR exhibited no significant benefit on the blood pressure, glucose profile, and lipid profile. Subgroup analysis suggested that early TRE is more effective in weight loss (WMD: -1.42, 95%... |
| 4 (MA) | Silverii, 2023 | Meta-analysis, 9 studies, n=540 | IF is not associated with greater or lesser weight loss than non-intermittent fasting diets. Further data on psychological parameters and overall well-being are needed to properly assess the role of IF diets in the management of obesity. |
| 4 (SR +large) | Chew, 2023 | Systematic review, 184 studies, n=7,231 | TRE may complement usual care and reduce body weight and fasting blood glucose. Rigorous randomized controlled trials with long-term assessments in a wide range of populations are warranted. |
| 4 (MA) | Fernández-Rodríguez, 2023 | Meta-analysis, 14 studies, n=562 | IF modalities did not negatively impact mental disorders in the general population. In fact, IF showed a positive influence on diminishing depression scores, and did not modify anxiety or mood. |
| 4 (MA) | Chen, 2023 | Meta-analysis | Favorable effect of TRE was observed on glucose metabolism but not on lipid profiles independent of weight loss. Hence TRE shall be administered with caution to overweight and obese people who have comorbidities such as... |
| 4 (MA) | Zeng, 2022 | Meta-analysis | IF could be used for patients with metabolic syndrome. Further studies with a larger sample size are needed to verify the effectiveness and safety of IF in patients with metabolic syndrome. |
| 4 (MA) | Liu, 2022 | Meta-analysis, n=899 | This updated meta-analysis found that TRE may be an effective approach to improve the metabolic state of nonobese subjects, especially in overweight participants. |
| 4 (SR +large) | Cuevas-Cervera, 2022 | Systematic review, 16 studies | Time restricted food and ketogenic diets may improve the quality of life in chronic conditions. However, more studies analyzing the effects of different nutritional strategies, not only in isolation but in combination with other... |
| 4 (MA) | Zhang, 2022 | Meta-analysis | The stability of the results was evaluated using sensitivity analyses. The significance of body weight change (SMD = -0.21, 95% CI (-0.40, -0.02) p = 0.028) was more significant after IF than CCR. There was no significant... |
| 4 (SR +large) | Wei, 2022 | Systematic review, 42 studies | Compared to continuous energy restriction (CER), IER showed no significant long-term differences in anthropometric, cardiometabolic, inflammatory, or appetite outcomes in included studies. More long-term studies are needed to... |
| 4 (SR +large) | Pinto, 2022 | Systematic review, 82 studies | In short, the ADF and TRF protocols have a positive effect on the remodeling of the IM and can possibly be used to control body adiposity, improve insulin sensitivity, and achieve other obesity-related metabolic changes. |
| 4 (MA) | Patikorn, 2021 | Meta-analysis, 11 studies | In this umbrella review, we found beneficial associations of IF with anthropometric and cardiometabolic outcomes supported by moderate to high quality of evidence, which supports the role of IF, especially modified alternate-day... |
| 4 (SR +large) | Chawla, 2021 | Systematic review, 2020 studies | There is a paucity of research examining the effects of TRE on cortisol and melatonin. The contrasting effect of dinner and breakfast-skipping should be further examined to ascertain whether timing the feeding window indeed has... |
| 4 (MA) | Ashtary-Larky, 2021 | Meta-analysis, 8 studies, n=221 | Results indicated that IF had a significant effect on body mass (WMD = -2.08 kg; 95% CI: -3.04, -1.13), fat mass (WMD = -1.36 kg; 95% CI: -1.94, -0.78), body mass index (WMD = -0.52 kg/m2; 95% CI: -0.85, -0.19), and body fat... |
| 4 (SR +large) | Sandoval, 2021 | Systematic review, 2020 studies | Intermittent fasting could be beneficial in resistance trained subjects or in overweight individuals to improve body composition by decreasing fat mass and at least maintain muscle mass; decrease in GLP-1 levels and; improving... |
| 4 (MA) | Borgundvaag, 2021 | Meta-analysis, 7 studies, n=338 | Current evidence suggests that IF is associated with greater weight loss in patients with T2DM compared with a standard diet, with a similar impact on glycemic control. |
| 4 (MA) | Pureza, 2021 | Meta-analysis, 8 studies, n=264 | Although the eTRF regimen seems to have a beneficial effect on the fasting blood glucose and HOMA-IR of individuals with excess weight, the results of this meta-analysis should be analyzed with caution due to the low-quality evidence. |
| 4 (SR +large) | Adafer, 2020 | Systematic review, 494 studies | TRE is a simple and well-tolerated diet that generates many beneficial health effects based on chrononutrition principles. More rigorous studies are needed, however, to confirm those effects, to understand their mechanisms and to... |
| 4 (MA) | Wang, 2020 | Meta-analysis | This meta-analysis demonstrated that IF regimens and ERDs may reduce CRP concentrations, particularly in overweight and obese individuals and through a considerable length of intervention (≥2 mo). However, neither dietary model... |
| 4 (MA) | Park, 2020 | Meta-analysis, 8 studies | Current evidence suggests that ADF effectively lowers BMI, BW, FM, and total cholesterol in adults with overweight within 6 months compared to the control. |
| 4 (SR +large) | Welton, 2020 | Systematic review, 27 studies, n=10 | Intermittent fasting shows promise for the treatment of obesity. To date, the studies have been small and of short duration. |
| 4 (MA) | Pellegrini, 2020 | Meta-analysis, 11 studies, n=485 | TRF regimens achieved a superior effect in promoting weight-loss and reducing fasting glucose compared to approaches with unrestricted time in meal consumption. However, long-term and well-designed trials are needed to draw... |
| 4 (MA) | Harris, 2018 | Meta-analysis, 6 studies | Intermittent energy restriction may be an effective strategy for the treatment of overweight and obesity. Intermittent energy restriction was comparable to continuous energy restriction for short term weight loss in overweight... |
| 4 (MA +large -nonRCT) | Lv, 2014 | Meta-analysis, 21 studies | Caloric restriction and ketogenic diet are effective against cancer in animal experiments while the role of intermittent fasting is doubtful and still needs exploration. More clinical experiments are needed and more suitable... |
| 3 (MA -few) | Hamsho, 2026 | Meta-analysis, 4 studies, n=216 | However, the evidence remains limited by the small number of available studies, modest sample sizes, and heterogeneity across interventions. Therefore, these findings should be considered preliminary and require confirmation in a... |
| 3 (MA -few) | Xing, 2026 | Meta-analysis, 3 studies | Crucially, the age-specific risk of LDL-C elevation dictates a mandate for vigilant lipid monitoring. Given that the certainty of evidence was rated as low to very low per GRADE criteria, these age-specific patterns should be... |
| 3 (MA -few) | Chen, 2026 | Meta-analysis, 4 studies, n=899 | Intermit-tent fasting is a effective dietary approach for patients with T2DM and prediabetes. |
| 3 (MA -nonRCT) | Feit, 2026 | Meta-analysis, 6 studies | To date, cross-sectional data have not consistently demonstrated associations between TRE and cardiometabolic health in community-dwelling adults. Until stronger real-world evidence emerges, the priority should remain on... |
| 3 (SR) | Flynn, 2026 | Systematic review, 5 studies, n=184 | Although TRE alone has shown inconsistent effects on diet quality, studies incorporating behavioral support or nutrition guidance resulted in more favorable outcomes. Future research should prioritize standardized methodologies... |
| 3 (SR) | Popiolek-Kalisz, 2026 | Systematic review | IF appears to present modest benefits on lipid profile, mainly in TG reduction, while data on LDL-C, HDL-C, and TC remains inconsistent. Among IF regimens, TRE demonstrates greater potential benefits, particularly when combined... |
| 3 (SR) | de Sousa, 2025 | Systematic review, 11 studies, n=19 | Time-restricted eating seems to be effective in weight loss and fat mass reduction, but most studies found no effect on sleep parameters. There was a lack of standardized methods for sleep measurements in the reviewed studies. |
| 3 (SR) | Lakhani, 2025 | Systematic review | In contrast, CCR was linked to enduring metabolic enhancements, including decreased visceral fat and improved insulin sensitivity. Nevertheless, both dietary approaches demonstrated constraints. |
| 3 (SR) | Hua, 2025 | Systematic review, 12 studies | This umbrella review highlights IF, especially TRE, as a promising intervention for weight and metabolic health, particularly beneficial for overweight or obese adults. We also highlight the need for further extensive research to... |
| 3 (SR) | Stringer, 2025 | Systematic review, 8 studies | Preliminary findings suggest that TRE is feasible and acceptable by people with cancer, may have oncological benefits, and improves quality of life. |
| 3 (MA -few) | Jin, 2025 | Meta-analysis, 3 studies, n=1,867 | Hence TRE is a potential and effective approach for weight loss for participants with overweight/obesity. An 8h-TRE intervention with a morning eating strategy for at least eight weeks might be the optimum TRE intervention mode. |
| 3 (SR) | Sones, 2025 | Systematic review, 10 studies | 10 studies were eligible for inclusion in this systematic review. Four studies reported improvements in overall HR-QoL scores among participants with type 2 diabetes, middle-aged women with obesity, generally healthy adults, and... |
| 3 (MA -nonRCT) | Son, 2024 | Meta-analysis | IF attenuated obesity-induced TNBC progression through reduced obesity and tumor burdens in cell and animal experiments, supporting the potential of a cost-effective adjuvant IF therapy for TNBC through lifestyle change. Further... |
| 3 (SR) | Ezzati, 2024 | Systematic review, 7 studies | The addition of TRE to CR regimens resulted in greater weight loss and improvements in cardiometabolic risk factors in some studies; however, the majority of studies did not find additional benefits. |
| 3 (SR) | Ozcan, 2024 | Systematic review | We delve into the physiological mechanisms through which intermittent fasting might improve cardiovascular health, and raise important factors to consider in the design of clinical trials on the efficacy of intermittent fasting... |
| 3 (SR) | Castillo, 2024 | Systematic review, 5 studies, n=470 | Any form of IF could be potentially beneficial for NAFLD treatment and some associated cardiometabolic parameters. However, it is necessary to evaluate the effects and safety of IF in long-term studies involving a higher number... |
| 3 (MA -few) | Turner, 2024 | Meta-analysis, 2 studies, n=936 | Time-restricted eating may be an effective approach to reduce TNF-α and leptin levels in the general adult population. This review was registered at PROSPERO as CRD42022358162. |
| 3 (SR +large -nonRCT) | Murta, 2023 | Systematic review, 23 studies | A comprehensive systematic review was conducted on five databases, PubMed, Cochrane, the Central Register of Controlled Trials, Web of Science databases, BVS and Scopus, identifying 23 relevant studies up to 6 October 2022. IF... |
| 3 (SR) | Senderovich, 2023 | Systematic review, 9 studies | IF is considered a safe intervention, and no adverse effects were found in the reviewed studies; however, evidence is limited as there were only 9 low-quality RCTs that assessed the impact of IF on cognition. DASH, low-glycemic... |
| 3 (SR) | Pérez-Gerdel, 2023 | Systematic review, 9 studies | Changes induced by fasting schemes positively impact the diversity and abundance of gut microbiota and the biomarkers described here. However, the changes previously reported have been studied in short periods and some return to... |
| 3 (SR) | van den Burg, 2023 | Systematic review, 5 studies | The results of this systematic review suggest that IER and PF can improve glucose regulation in patients with T2D, at least in the short term. Moreover, these diets may allow for dosage reduction of glucose-lowering medication. |
| 3 (SR) | Vizthum, 2023 | Systematic review | TRE did not result in major changes to appetite or disordered eating symptoms. Bedtime hunger was higher in TRE. Assessment of subtle alterations in eating behavior, such as eating in the absence of hunger, would be beneficial... |
| 3 (SR) | Kucuk, 2022 | Systematic review, 8 studies, n=456 | The certainty of the evidence was rated low or very low for all outcomes, thus no firm conclusions can be drawn about the potential benefits of ADF on subjective feelings of appetite and body weight. Despite the high interest in... |
| 3 (SR) | Bitsanis, 2022 | Systematic review, 5 studies, n=67 | CONCLUSIONS: eTRF seems to have positive effects on the glycemic profile mainly in healthy individuals with normal BMI. However, other factors should also be taken into account to address overweight, obese, and prediabetic... |
| 3 (SR) | Kang, 2022 | Systematic review | TRF as a more easily adaptable form of IF is a promising dietary approach to improving body composition and metabolic health while maintaining fitness and muscular function. However, more research is needed before this dietary... |
| 3 (SR) | Różański, 2021 | Systematic review, 8 studies | For this reason, we reviewed the available databases to analyse the studies conducted to date using different modifications of intermittent fasting among patients with MAFLD. Eight studies using this dietary strategy were... |
| 3 (SR) | Morales-Suarez-Varela, 2021 | Systematic review | In patients with multiple sclerosis, the data available are too scarce to draw any firm conclusions, but it does appear that intermittent fasting may be a safe and feasible intervention. However, it is necessary to continue... |
| 3 (SR) | Keenan, 2020 | Systematic review, 8 studies | Future research should examine longer-term effects of various forms of IF combined with resistance training compared to traditional forms of energy restriction. Prospero registration CRD42018103867. |
| 3 (SR) | Vitale, 2020 | Systematic review, 5 studies | Future research should include consistent fasting regimens and larger sample sizes to improve the reliability and generalizability of the data. Also, consistent follow-up after a fasting intervention may enhance long-term... |
| 3 (MA -nonRCT) | Correia, 2020 | Meta-analysis, 8 studies | While Ramadan IF may lead to impairments in aerobic capacity, TRF may be effective for improving it. As there are few studies per performance outcome, more research is needed to move the field forward. |
| 3 (MA -few) | Horne, 2015 | Meta-analysis, 3 studies | Clinical research studies of fasting with robust designs and high levels of clinical evidence are sparse in the literature. Whereas the few randomized controlled trials and observational clinical outcomes studies support the... |
| 2 (SR -few) | Zhen, 2026 | Systematic review, 2 studies | The limited evidence available showed that the majority of studies involving eucaloric or hypocaloric LCDs reported beneficial effects on body weight. The majority of studies involving eucaloric (but not hypocaloric) LCDs... |
| 2 (SR -nonRCT) | Pereira, 2026 | Systematic review | These pathways contribute to the differential stress resistance observed in normal cells and increased vulnerability in tumor cells. CONCLUSION: Preclinical evidence suggests it can suppress tumor growth, reduce metastatic... |
| 2 (SR -nonRCT) | Alkurd, 2024 | Systematic review, 5 studies | In humans, IF has yet to be fully investigated in terms of its long-term effect on BDNF and cognitive functions. Large-scale, well-controlled studies with high-quality data are warranted to elucidate the impact of the IF regimens... |
| 2 (SR -few) | Anemoulis, 2023 | Systematic review, 3 studies | We identified a potential beneficial effect of IF on chemotherapy-induced toxicity, based on markers of DNA and leukocyte damage; however, these results were derived from three studies and require further validation. Further... |
| 2 (SR -few) | Ezzati, 2023 | Systematic review, 2 studies | With matched energy intakes, IF interventions produced similar beneficial effects for weight loss and chronic disease risk factors compared with DCR. Very limited evidence suggests that IF may be more effective vs DCR for fat... |
| 2 (SR -nonRCT) | Xie, 2022 | Systematic review | Differences between the consequences of early and delayed TRF were found, including differences in changes in blood lipid factors. These preliminary findings may help to provide guidance for choosing suitable eating windows... |
| 2 (SR -few) | Allaf, 2021 | Systematic review, 3 studies, n=1,125 | However, this was not clinically significant. There was no significant clinical difference between IF and CER in improving cardiometabolic risk factors to reduce the risk of CVD. Further research is needed to understand the... |
| 2 (SR -few) | Lima, 2020 | Systematic review, 4 studies | Results did not provide evidence of the effect of intermittent fasting on weight loss in overweight or obese individuals. |
| 1 (SR -few -nonRCT) | Almeida Sousa, 2026 | Systematic review, 2 studies | IF appears to enhance cardiovascular resilience under stress through multiple metabolic and molecular pathways. These findings support further clinical investigation of IF as a potential adjunct strategy for cardiometabolic... |
| Score | Study | Design, n | Finding |
|---|---|---|---|
| 4 (RCT open +n200) | Teong, 2026 | RCT, n=209 | Both intermittent fasting and CR effectively induce weight loss, but they potentially act through distinct behavioural pathways, with disinhibition playing a more prominent role in CR. |
| 4 (RCT open +n200) | Turner, 2025 | RCT, n=209 | The mode of weight loss intervention did not differentially impact inflammatory markers in participants with weight loss above median. |
| 4 (RCT open +n200) | Oh, 2025 | RCT, n=337 | TRE effectively reduces hepatic steatosis in MASLD, with comparable benefits on weight loss, body composition, and metabolic parameters as CR. This approach may serve as a practical dietary strategy for MASLD management.... |
| 4 (RCT +blind) | Talebi, 2024 | RCT, n=30 | The eTRE alone or eTRE plus probiotics did not result in significantly greater weight loss or improvements in metabolic, menstrual and gonadal variables compared with the standard three-meal DCR diet. |
| 4 (RCT open +n200) | Guo, 2024 | RCT, n=509 | This randomized clinical trial of Chinese adults with overweight or obesity and with early type 2 diabetes found that 5:2 MR could improve glycemic outcomes and weight loss in the short term compared with metformin or... |
| 4 (RCT open +n200) | Quist, 2024 | RCT, n=2,022 | 3 months of 10-h per-day TRE did not lead to clinically relevant effects on bodyweight in middle-aged to older individuals at high risk of type 2 diabetes. |
| 4 (RCT open +n200) | Teong, 2023 | RCT, n=209 | Incorporating advice for meal timing with prolonged fasting led to greater improvements in postprandial glucose metabolism in adults at increased risk of developing type 2 diabetes. ClinicalTrials.gov identifier NCT03689608 . |
| 4 (RCT open +n200) | Gabel, 2022 | RCT, n=255 | This study will examine efficacious lifestyle strategies to treat obesity and reduce CRC risk among individuals with obesity. |
| 4 (RCT open +n200) | Erdem, 2022 | RCT, n=360 | It was observed that IFD were not superior to MD in terms of anthropometric measurements. The health effects and long-term consequences are not clear for IFD, unlike MD. For these reasons, it is thought that the most effective... |
| 4 (RCT open +n200) | Phillips, 2021 | RCT, n=213 | There was no significant difference in weight loss between TRE and SDA (between-group difference -0.88%, 95% confidence interval -3.1 to 1.3, p = 0.43). Our results show the potential of smartphone records to predict metabolic... |
| 4 (RCT open +n200) | Cai, 2019 | RCT, n=271 | ADF appears to be an effective diet therapy for individuals with NAFLD that can achieve weight loss and improvement of dyslipidaemia within a relatively short period of time (4 to 12 weeks). Potential preventive effects of ADF on... |
| 3 (RCT open) | Tağraf, 2026 | RCT, n=30 | The response to the intervention is closely related to the individual's metabolic phenotype and structural brain integrity. Istanbul Medipol University Non-Interventional Clinical Research Ethics Committee on March 6, 2025, under... |
| 3 (RCT open) | Mohammadpour, 2026 | RCT, n=40 | Intensive lifestyle interventions incorporating CCR or TRE + CCR effectively reduced appetite in adults with T2D but did not significantly affect binge eating. Future research should target individuals with higher baseline BES... |
| 3 (RCT open) | Aminian, 2026 | RCT, n=75 | TRE, particularly eTRE, appears to be an effective dietary intervention for women with PCOS, offering significant benefits for glycemic control, metabolic health, and weight management. |
| 3 (RCT open) | de Moraes Campos, 2026 | RCT, n=42 | Results suggest that TRE modestly attenuate early AT, but this effect does not translate into differences in RMR after 1 week. Hormonal and appetite responses were also not substantially affected by TRE. Further studies are... |
| 3 (RCT open) | Wilkinson, 2026 | RCT, n=35 | In adults with obesity, compared with SOC dietary counseling alone, TRE promotes weight loss, healthier body composition, and, in exploratory analyses, reduction in adipose tissue proinflammatory gene expression. |
| 3 (RCT open) | Kleckner, 2026 | RCT, n=31 | There was no effect of group (time-restricted eating vs. control) on any of the rest-activity parameters. Findings suggest that rest-activity rhythm parameters, including those derived from novel HMMs, may serve as useful... |
| 3 (RCT open) | Zhang, 2026 | RCT, n=60 | Time-restricted eating may be beneficial to weight loss and cardiometabolic health improvement by regulating gut microbiota and serum metabolites. |
| 3 (RCT open) | Ghoreishy, 2026 | RCT, n=62 | CONCLUSIONS: In patients with post-sleeve weight regain, a 12-week TRE + CR intervention did not produce superior effects compared with CR alone on anthropometric, metabolic, or psychological outcomes. Longer and more... |
| 3 (RCT open) | Badrooj, 2026 | RCT, n=40 | Both calorie-carbohydrate restriction alone and in combination with intermittent fasting significantly improved glycemic control and induced diabetes remission compared with the control group. No significant difference was found... |
| 3 (RCT open) | Harnack, 2026 | RCT, n=73 | Findings suggest that TRE with an 8-hour window and ad libitum intake may have similar effects on food and nutrient intake as an energy-restricted diet. |
| 3 (RCT open) | Kramer, 2026 | RCT, n=39 | These findings demonstrate that TRE does not prevent the physiologic compensatory changes associated with weight reduction in individuals with overweight/obesity and T2DM. |
| 3 (RCT open) | Tağraf, 2026 | RCT, n=40 | Significant between-group differences were also observed for secondary endpoints, including apathy (Starkstein Apathy Scale), activities of daily living (ADL/IADL), and gastrointestinal function (Bristol stool scale), all... |
| 3 (RCT open) | Monda, 2026 | RCT, n=30 | The ketogenic diet was associated with the most pronounced long-term metabolic improvements, whereas 16:8 time-restricted eating yielded faster early responses and the most stable enhancement in Orexin-A levels. These findings... |
| 3 (RCT open) | M Abdel Fattah, 2026 | RCT, n=99 | A 12-hour intermittent fasting (IF) regimen combined with calorie restriction (CR) demonstrated superior efficacy in promoting weight loss and improving glycemic control in patients with type 2 diabetes (T2D) compared to CR... |